The Samaritan Torah

The Sacred Text of the Samaritans

The Samaritan Torah, also known as the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), is the central religious text of the Samaritans, an ancient Israelite community that traces its lineage to the northern tribes of Israel. While the Samaritan Torah shares much in common with the Masoretic Text (MT) of the Jewish Torah, it also contains unique differences that reflect the distinct beliefs and traditions of the Samaritan people.

From the Samaritan perspective, the Torah is the only divinely given scripture, and they view themselves as the true keepers of the ancient Israelite faith. Their version of the Torah is written in the Samaritan script, an ancient Hebrew script that predates the Babylonian exile and the later adoption of the square Aramaic script used in the Jewish Masoretic tradition.

Origins and History of the Samaritan Torah

A Shared Yet Divergent Tradition

The Samaritan Torah holds a unique place in biblical history, as it represents an independent textual tradition that diverges from the Masoretic Text, which became the standard text for Rabbinic Judaism. The Samaritans believe that their version of the Torah is the original, unaltered revelation given to Moses at Mount Sinai and that the Jewish Torah was altered during and after the Babylonian exile. According to Samaritan tradition, they are the true Israelites who remained faithful to the divine commandments, never going into exile, and continued to worship at Mount Gerizim, which they regard as the chosen place of God rather than Jerusalem.

Scholars widely agree that the divergence between the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Jewish Masoretic Text occurred during the Second Temple period. The split between the two traditions is rooted in historical and political events, particularly the separation of the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. After the Assyrian conquest of Israel in 722 BC, the northern Israelites who remained in the land continued their distinct religious practices, which eventually became the basis of Samaritanism.

While the Jewish tradition centered its worship in Jerusalem and developed religious laws through the Oral Torah, the Samaritans preserved what they considered the original faith of Israel, emphasizing the authority of the written Torah alone and rejecting later prophetic writings and rabbinic interpretations.

The Samaritan Script

The Samaritan Torah is written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, a script that closely resembles the writing used in ancient Israel before the Babylonian exile. This script is distinct from the square Aramaic script (Ktav Ashuri, כתב אשורי) that became the standard for Jewish texts after the exile. The Samaritans believe that their script is the original script used by Moses and that the Jews abandoned it in favor of the Aramaic script influenced by their time in Babylon.

The differences in script reflect a deeper religious and cultural divide:

  • The Jewish Adoption of Ktav Ashuri: After the Babylonian exile, Jewish scribes began using the square script, influenced by the Aramaic language, which was the dominant language of the Persian Empire. This change was formalized by Jewish scholars in the Second Temple period.
  • The Samaritan Retention of Paleo-Hebrew: The Samaritans maintained the older script, believing it to be the sacred script of Moses and the true writing of the Torah. To this day, all Samaritan religious texts, including Torah scrolls and inscriptions, are written in this ancient script.
  • Comparison with the Dead Sea Scrolls: Some manuscripts from the Dead Sea Scrolls collection use Paleo-Hebrew script for the name of God (YHWH), suggesting that Paleo-Hebrew remained in limited use among some Jewish sects even during the Second Temple period.

The survival of the Samaritan script makes it one of the oldest continuously used writing systems in the world. The Samaritans continue to pass down this script from generation to generation, using it in their Torah scrolls and religious literature.

The study of the Samaritan Torah and its script provides valuable insights into the history of biblical transmission, ancient Hebrew linguistics, and the development of Jewish and Samaritan religious traditions. By preserving their unique script and textual tradition, the Samaritans have maintained a direct connection to the early Israelite past.

Key Differences Between the Samaritan and Jewish Torahs

The Centrality of Mount Gerizim

One of the most significant theological differences between the Samaritan Torah and the Jewish Torah is the emphasis on Mount Gerizim as the divinely ordained place of worship. The Samaritan Torah explicitly commands the construction of an altar on Mount Gerizim in Exodus 20:17 (corresponding to Exodus 20:21 in the Masoretic Text), a verse absent in Jewish Torah traditions.

For the Samaritans, Mount Gerizim—located near modern-day Nablus—is the true holy place of God. They believe that the original sanctuary was established there, in contrast to the Jewish claim that the Temple in Jerusalem was divinely chosen. This dispute over the proper place of worship is reflected in John 4:20, where the Samaritan woman at the well tells Jesus: “Our ancestors worshiped on this mountain, but you Jews claim that the place where we must worship is in Jerusalem.”

Archaeological evidence suggests that the Samaritans had a functioning temple on Mount Gerizim by the Persian period (5th century BC), which was later destroyed by the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus around 110 BC. Despite this destruction, Mount Gerizim remains the central religious site for the Samaritan community to this day, and their Torah continues to reflect this ancient tradition.

Linguistic and Stylistic Differences

The Samaritan Torah differs linguistically and stylistically from the Masoretic Text, with variations that reflect theological, historical, and grammatical developments:

  • Harmonization of Parallel Passages: The Samaritan Torah often harmonizes discrepancies found in the Jewish Torah. For example, in narratives that appear in both Exodus and Deuteronomy, the Samaritan version makes the wording more consistent.
  • Simplification of Hebrew Grammar: The Samaritan text tends to simplify complex Hebrew constructions, making the language easier to understand. Some scholars argue that this reflects a different scribal tradition.
  • Expanded Genealogies and Historical Clarifications: The Samaritan Torah sometimes expands genealogical lists and historical narratives to enhance clarity and coherence.
  • Distinct Rendering of the Ten Commandments: The Ten Commandments in the Samaritan Torah include an additional commandment instructing the people to worship exclusively at Mount Gerizim, reinforcing its central theological importance.

Textual Comparisons with the Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) in the 20th century provided crucial insight into the textual variations between the Samaritan Torah and the Masoretic Text. Some biblical manuscripts from Qumran contain readings that align more closely with the Samaritan Torah than with the Jewish tradition, suggesting that the Samaritan textual tradition preserves some ancient variants that were in circulation during the Second Temple period.

Likewise, the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible from the 3rd century BC, contains readings that sometimes match the Samaritan Torah more closely than the Masoretic Text. This indicates that some of the textual variations found in the Samaritan Torah were not unique to the Samaritans but may have been part of a broader textual tradition before the Jewish canon was standardized.

Doctrinal and Theological Variations

Beyond textual differences, the Samaritan Torah also reflects distinct theological beliefs that set it apart from Jewish and later Christian traditions:

  • Limited Canon: The Samaritans do not recognize the books of the Prophets (Nevi’im) or the Writings (Ketuvim), which are part of the Jewish Tanakh. Instead, they believe that only the Pentateuch (Genesis–Deuteronomy) is divinely inspired and authoritative.
  • Rejection of a Davidic Messiah: Unlike Jews and Christians, who anticipate a Messianic figure from the line of David, the Samaritans await a different prophetic figure, the Taheb (“Restorer”). The Taheb is expected to be a prophet like Moses, who will restore true worship on Mount Gerizim and bring the people back to a pure observance of the Torah.
  • Priestly Authority: The Samaritans continue to be led by a hereditary High Priest descended from the ancient priestly lineage. They reject the rabbinic system developed in Judaism, maintaining instead a strict adherence to their interpretation of the written Torah.
  • Concept of God: While sharing the belief in one God with Jews, Samaritans have distinct theological interpretations that emphasize God’s role as the sole ruler of history and the necessity of strict monotheism.

A Parallel Yet Distinct Tradition

The differences between the Samaritan Torah and the Jewish Masoretic Text highlight the complex development of biblical texts and religious traditions in ancient Israel. While both groups trace their origins to the Israelites and share a common reverence for the Torah, their theological and textual traditions evolved separately due to historical, political, and religious factors.

Modern scholars continue to study the Samaritan Pentateuch alongside the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint to reconstruct the early history of the biblical text. The Samaritan tradition provides valuable insight into ancient Hebrew script, biblical textual transmission, and the diversity of Israelite religious practices before the rise of Rabbinic Judaism.

Despite their small numbers, the Samaritans have preserved their version of the Torah and their unique religious identity for over two millennia, offering a living connection to an ancient Israelite heritage.

Theological and Religious Beliefs of the Samaritans

Monotheism and Moses as the Ultimate Prophet

Samaritans strictly follow monotheism, believing in the One God of Israel as revealed in the Torah. They see Moses as the last and greatest prophet, rejecting later Jewish prophetic traditions.

The Samaritan Priesthood

Unlike Rabbinic Judaism, which developed a rabbinic system of religious interpretation, the Samaritans have maintained a priestly system. Their High Priests are direct descendants of the ancient Israelite priesthood.

The Passover Sacrifice

Samaritans continue to practice the Passover sacrifice, slaughtering lambs on Mount Gerizim, just as described in the Torah. This practice has remained central to their identity for thousands of years.

Samaritan Perspective on Their Torah’s Authenticity

Samaritans assert that their version of the Torah is the purest and most authentic, arguing that:

  • The Jewish Torah was corrupted by later scribal changes and theological developments in exile.
  • The Mount Gerizim commandment was originally part of the Torah but was removed in the Jewish tradition.
  • The Paleo-Hebrew script is the original script of the Torah, while the Aramaic square script used by Rabbinic Judaism is a post-exilic innovation.

Additionally, the Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in the 20th century, have revealed that some ancient biblical manuscripts contain readings closer to the Samaritan Torah than to the Masoretic Text, supporting the claim that the Samaritan Torah preserves some early textual traditions.

Modern Significance and Preservation of the Samaritan Torah

The Samaritan Community Today

The Samaritan community is one of the smallest religious groups in the world, with only around 800 members, split between two main locations: Kiryat Luza on Mount Gerizim near Nablus (Shechem) in the West Bank, and Holon, Israel. Despite their small numbers, the Samaritans have managed to preserve their distinct religious and cultural identity, maintaining a way of life that has remained largely unchanged for millennia.

Among their unique traditions are:

  • Samaritan Hebrew Pronunciation: The Samaritans continue to use their own pronunciation of ancient Hebrew, distinct from both modern Israeli Hebrew and traditional Jewish liturgical pronunciation.
  • Torah Recitation: The Samaritan Torah is read in its unique Paleo-Hebrew script, a script that predates the Babylonian exile and is considered by the Samaritans to be the original script of the Torah.
  • Passover Sacrifice: Unlike Jews, who commemorate Pesaḥ (Passover) without a sacrificial offering, the Samaritans continue to perform the traditional Paschal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim. Every year, Samaritan families gather to sacrifice lambs in a ceremony that closely mirrors the description found in the Torah.
  • Sabbath Observance: Samaritans strictly observe the Sabbath from Friday evening to Saturday evening, avoiding all forms of work and adhering to ancient purity laws.
  • Religious Festivals: In addition to Pesaḥ, the Samaritans observe biblical feasts such as Shavuot and Sukkot, according to their own calculations of the religious calendar.

Due to their small population, the Samaritans have historically faced challenges related to intermarriage. In recent years, they have allowed limited marriages with outsiders, provided that the spouse converts to Samaritanism and adopts their religious practices.

Academic and Religious Interest

The Samaritan Torah has attracted significant attention from biblical scholars, linguists, and historians due to its textual variations from the Masoretic Text. Scholars study the Samaritan Torah in comparison with:

  • The Masoretic Text (MT): The standard Jewish text of the Hebrew Bible, which differs from the Samaritan Torah in over 6,000 instances.
  • The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS): Ancient Hebrew manuscripts discovered in the 20th century, some of which contain readings closer to the Samaritan Torah than to the Masoretic Text.
  • The Septuagint (LXX): The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which also shares some similarities with the Samaritan text.

These comparisons help scholars reconstruct the history of the biblical text and understand how different versions of the Torah evolved over time. Many researchers believe that the Samaritan Torah preserves certain ancient readings that were later altered in the Masoretic tradition.

Additionally, the study of the Samaritan Torah contributes to linguistic research, as it provides insights into ancient Hebrew grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. It also plays an important role in the study of religious sects and their textual traditions in the Second Temple period.

Preservation Efforts and Digital Access

In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and digitize the Samaritan Torah. Scholars and institutions have worked with the Samaritan community to document their texts, traditions, and pronunciation. Some key initiatives include:

  • Manuscript Preservation: Samaritan Torah scrolls and manuscripts have been carefully preserved in museums and academic institutions, ensuring that future generations can study them.
  • Online Access: Digital projects have made the Samaritan Pentateuch available for study worldwide, including parallel texts with the Masoretic Text and translations.
  • Education and Outreach: The Samaritans have increasingly participated in academic conferences and interfaith dialogues to educate others about their traditions.

Despite their small numbers, the Samaritans have maintained their heritage for thousands of years. Their Torah remains a critical piece of biblical history, shedding light on the early transmission of the text and preserving traditions that have endured since ancient Israel.

The Legacy of the Samaritan Pentateuch

From the Samaritan perspective, their Torah represents the unaltered revelation of God given to Moses at Mount Sinai, with Mount Gerizim as the divinely chosen place of worship. They view themselves as the true Israelites, distinct from the Jewish community, whom they believe departed from the original faith after the Babylonian exile.

The Samaritan Torah remains a crucial piece of biblical history, offering insights into the early transmission of the Torah and the diverse traditions that shaped ancient Israelite religion. Despite their small numbers, the Samaritans have preserved their faith and their Torah for over 2,000 years, maintaining a unique and continuous link to the ancient Israelite tradition.